GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS

            Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated steam that may spout up to a height of 150 feet from the earth beneath. The phenomena are associated with a thermal or volcanic region in which the water below is being heated beyond boiling-point. The jet of water is usually emitted with an explosion, and is often triggered off by gases seeping out of the heated rocks. Almost all the world's geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, the Rotorua district of North Island, New Zealand and Yellowstone Park of U.S.A. The world's best known geyser is perhaps 'Old Faithful' in Yellowstone National park, Wyoming which erupts at regular intervals- every 63 minutes on the average.

.

.

            Hot springs or thermal springs are more common, and may be found in any part of the earth where water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by the interior forces. The water rises to the surface without any explosion. Such springs contain dissolved minerals which may be of some medical value. Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some of them have been harnessed to heat houses, swimming pools and for other domestic purposes. Hot springs and geysers have become tourist attractions e.g in Japan and Hawaii.

FACTORS AFFECTING SALINITY OF OCEANS AND SEAS

The variations of salinity in the various sea and oceans is affected by the following factors :-

·       The rate of evaporation - The water fringing the High Pressure Belts of the Trade Wing Deserts, between 20 degree and 30 degree N and S, have salinity because of the high rate of evaporation caused by high temperature and low humidity. The temperate oceans have lower salinity due to the lower temperature and a lower rate of evaporation.

·       The amount of fresh water added by precipitation streams and icebergs - Salinity is lower than the average 35% in equatorial waters because of the heavy daily rainfall and high relative humidity. Oceans into which huge rivers like the Amazon, Congo, Ganges, Irrawaddy and Mekong frain, have much of their saltness diluted and have a lower salinity. The Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters have a salinity of less than 32% because of the colder climate with little evaporation and because much fresh water is added from the melting of icebergs, as well as by several large poleward-bound rivers, e.g. Ob, Lena, Yenisey, and Mackenzine.

.

.

·       The degree of water mixing by currents - In wholly or partially enclosed seas such as the Caspian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf, the waters do not mix freely with the ocean water and they are not penetrated by ocean currents. Salinity is high, often over 37%. In areas of inland drainage without links with the oceans, continuous evaporation under an almost cloudless sky causes the accumulation of salts around the shores. In the open oceans where currents freely flow, salinity tends to be near the average 35% or even a little lower. The range of salinity is negligible where there is free mixing of water by surface and sub-surface currents.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEATHER AND CLIMATE

            The term weather should not be confused with climate, though they are very closely related to each other in the study of meteorology and climatology. We don't hear people saying that the climate of the day is warm or cold, but we do talk of warm weather, a cold morning, a sunny afternoon, a rainy day or a chilly night. Any casual remarks about the atmospheric conditions of a certain place at a certain time are about weather. It is never static, and thus cannot be generalized. In the same country, even over a small area, the weather can vary tremendously. It may be sunny in one part of the district, but raining heavily a few miles away. Strong gales may be experienced along the coasts while the interior may be relatively calm. It is important to realise that any place can be subjected to haphazard changes in weather at any time.

.

.

            When we speak of climate we mean the average atmospheric conditions of an area over a considerable time. For climate averages, a minimum period of 35 years is desirable. This involves the systematic observation, recording and processing of the various elements of climate such as rainfall, temperature, humidity, air pressure, winds, clouds and sunshine before any standardization of the climate means or averages can be arrived at. The climate of Malaysia is described as hot, wet, equatorial climate which is a summing up of the average everyday climate of the country throughout the year.

            The degree of variability in the climate or weather of a country also differs. Generally speaking, the climate of temperate latitudes is far more variable than that of the tropics, The climate of the the British Isles is so changeable that many people have commented that ` Britain has no climate, only weather'. Conversely, the climate of Egypt is so static that it makes a good deal of sense when people say that ` Egypt has no weather, only climate'.

 

RIVER REJUVENATION

          The earth's crust is far from stable and it is not surprising that, in the course of a river's development, parts may be uplifted or depressed, giving rise to certain characteristics features associated with rejuvenation, i.e. being young again.

            A negative movement occurs when there is an uplift of land or a fall in sea level. This will steepen the slope so that active down-cutting is renewed. A fall in sea level leaves the flood-plain at an increased altitude above the sea level. The river with its renewed vigour cuts into the former flood-plain, leaving behind terraces on both sides of the river. There is also a break in the graded profile of the river, often marked by a series of rapids. This point where the old and rejuvenated profile meet is called the Knick Point or Rejuvenated Head.

.

.

            If rejuvenation occurs in the upper-course, the river valleys are deepened and steep-sided Gorges are formed. In the middle and lower course vertical corrasion replaces lateral corrasion and the existing meanders are vertically eroded by the rejuvenated stream. A distinct new inner trench is cut in the old valley, and the river develops a deep valley with entrenched or incised meanders. The best developed incised meanders are those of the River Colorado, U.S.A., where the uplift of 7,000 feet in the tertiary period renewed down-cutting to a fantastic depth. In some parts of the Grand canyon, the depth is almost a mile. It is 10 miles wide at the top and 300 miles long. Other examples are the River Moselle in Germany, the River Wear at Durham, England and the Wye Valley, Monmouthshire.

            A positive movement occurs when there is a depression of land or a rise in sea level. This submerge the lands along the coast, `drown' the valleys and weaken the erosive power of the river. The flow is checked and large quantities of sediment will be dropped. The lower course of the river may be partly in the sea and features of deposition are shifted upwards to the middle course. The upper course is little affected when there is a rise in sea level. In many areas where the sea has risen this was probably caused by the release of water locked up in the ice masses during the Quaternary Ice Ages.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

The "Demographic Transition" is a model that describes population change over time. It is based on an interpretation begun in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson, of the observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the past two hundred years or so.

The demographic transition model seeks to explain the transformation of countries from having high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.

The model is based on the change in crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR) over time. Each is expressed per thousand populations. The CBR is determined by taking the number of births in one year in a country, dividing it by the country's population, and multiplying the number by 1000.

The crude death rate is similarly determined. The number of deaths in one year is divided by the population and that figure is multiplied by 1000.

.

.

Stage I

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, countries in Western Europe had a high CBR and CDR.

Birth Rate is high as a result of:

• Lack of family planning
• High Infant Mortality Rate: putting babies in the 'bank'
• Need for workers in agriculture
• Religious beliefs
• Children as economic assets

Death Rate is high because of:

• High levels of disease
• Famine
• Lack of clean water and sanitation
• Lack of health care
• War
• Competition for food from predators such as rats
• Lack of education

The high CBR and CDR were somewhat stable and meant slow growth of a population.

Stage II

In the mid-18th century, the death rate in Western European countries dropped due to improvement in sanitation and medicine. Out of tradition and practice, the birth rate remained high. This dropping death rate but stable birth rate in the beginning of Stage II contributed to skyrocketing population growth rates. Over time, children became an added expense and were less able to contribute to the wealth of a family.

Death Rate decreases as a result of:

• Improved health care (e.g. Smallpox Vaccine)
• Improved Hygiene (Water for drinking boiled)
• Improved sanitation
• Improved food production and storage
• Improved transport for food
• Decreased Infant Mortality Rates

Stage III

Along with advances in birth control, the CBR was reduced through the 20th century in developed countries. Populations still grew rapidly but this growth began to slow down.

There are several factors contributing to this eventual decline:

• Infant Mortality Rate declined.
• Increasing urbanization changes the traditional values placed upon fertility and the value of children in rural society. Urban living also raises the cost of dependent children to a nuclear family (education acts and child labor acts increased dependency through the late 1800s). People begin to assess more rationally just how many children they desire or need. Once traditional patterns of thinking are broken the decline is likely to accelerate.
• Increasing female literacy and employment lower the uncritical acceptance of childbearing and motherhood as measures of the status of women.
• Improvements in contraceptive technology.

Stage IV

In the late 20th century, the CBR and CDR in developed countries both leveled off at a low rate. It is characterized by stability. In this stage the population age structure has become older. In some cases the fertility rate falls well below replacement and population decline rapidly.

Drawbacks of Model

The model does not provide "guidelines" as to how long it takes a country to get from Stage I to III. Western European countries took centuries through some rapidly developing countries are transforming in mere decades. The model also does not predict that all countries will reach Stage III and have stable low birth and death rates. There are factors such as religion that keep some countries' birth rate from dropping. 

.

.

INFLUENCE OF HIMALAYAS IN INDIAN CONTINENT

The Great Himalayas, consisting of a series of parallel ranges and having about 2500km length from west to east stands like a great wall on the northern side of Indian continent. The most significant geographical structure of India influences our nation in such a way that no other mountain system have influenced any other nation.

.

.

1.              PHYSICAL BARRIER : It acts as a compound wall that separates India from central and East Asian countries. It also accounts for the difference in climatic and weather patterns between Indian sub-continent from the rest of Asia.

2.              NATURAL FRONTIER : The Himalayas acts as a defense barrier and have been protecting India from foreign invasions since early times. History gives us the evidence that no invaders attacked India after crossing the Himalayas. Even though China's aggression is an exception, the significance of Himalayas cannot be ignored completely.

3.              CLIMATIC INFLUENCE : The Himalayas play a very important role in influencing the climate of India. India is a monsoon land only because of the presence of Himalayas. It traps the monsoon winds from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal and forces them to shed their moisture content within the Indian sub-continent in the form of snow and rain. It also blocks the cold winter storms of East Asia from entering India, thus protecting us from severe cold. The Himalayas splits the westerly jet streams into two branches such that the southward branch entering India plays a significant role in bringing the monsoon.

4.              SOURCE REGION OF RIVERS : The Himalayas is the abundant reservoir of Great Indian rivers such as Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra. The snow melt in summer and precipitation in winter makes them perennial rivers. i.e, having water throughout the year. The abundant waterfall, huge snowfield and large glaciers feed these drainage systems. The Himalayan rivers give life to the northern India.

5.              FERTILITY OF SOIL : The entire northern plains were made by the Himalayas. The Himalayan Rivers carry slits on their way down and deposit in the northern plain. These alluvial deposits are responsible for the high fertility of this land. Therefore, it is often said that northern great plain is a gift of Himalayas.

6.              HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PROJECTS : The Himalayan valley with natural waterfalls offers the best location for construction of dams. The vast potential of Himalayan rivers offer a great range for construction of many mainstream dams.

7.              BIODIVERSITY AND VEGETATION : The Himalayan ranges is famous for its rich biodiversity. There is altitudinal zonation of vegetation from the tropic to the alpine. The forests provide fuel woods, medicinal plants and various raw materials that are needed for the forest based industries. Rich pastures for grazing is also an adding feature of the Himalayas.

8.              AGRICULTURE : The Himalayas does not have much flat lands, so offers slopes that are terraced for cultivation. The major crop is Rice. Crops like wheat, maize, potatoes, ginger, and tobacco are also cultivated. Tea is a unique crop which grows only on hill slopes. Many fruits such as apples, pears, peaches, mulberries, cherries along with citrus fruits are grown in the Himalayan region.

9.              MINERAL RESOURCES : Himalayan region contain many valuable mineral resources. The tertiary rocks have vast potential of mineral oil. Coal is found in Kashmir. Also minerals such as Copper, Cobalt, Nickel, Zinc, Lead, Antimony, Tungsten, Limestone, Gypsum and Magnetite are also present in the Himalayan locality. The presence of Gold, Silver and other semi-precious and precious stones are also the feature of Himalayan region.

10.         TOURISM : The beautiful landscapes on Himalayan mountain offer a great tourist spot. Increasing popularity of winter sports, snowfall and the cool climate, when neighboring places are under the scorching heat of summer attracts millions of tourists from different parts of the world. Hill stations such as Missouri, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, Chamba, Ranikhat, Almora, Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok etc. provide huge scope of tourism due to its scenic beauty as well as healthy environment.

11.         PILGRIMAGE : The Himalayas is known as the house of Gods. Apart from its tourist places, the region is studded with sanctified shrines. Kedarnath, Badrinath, Vaishnodevi, Kailash, Amarnath, Tungnath, Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri etc. which are at high altitudes are famous pilgrim centers in the Himalayas.

.

.

TRIBES IN INDIA : !!!TRIBE NAMES, STATES AND DESCRIPTION!!!

          Tribal people constitute 8.6% of the nation's total population, over 104 million people as per 2011 census. The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order (Second Amendment) Bill,  2013: The bill aims at inclusion of Narikoravan, grouped with Kurivikkaran community from Tamil Nadu, and Dhanuhar and Dhanuwar communities from Chhattisgarh in the list of Scheduled Tribes will require a Constitutional amendment.

         Since hundreds of tribes are there in India, it becomes very difficult for the aspirants to remember each and every tribe. I have tried to discuss about the major tribes and tribes which are in news. Apologies if I have missed out any major tribes. 

Tribes spread across different parts of India

Name	State	Description
Bhils (derived from bow)	MP, Gujarat,  Rajasthan, Maharashtra and north-eastern part of Tripura	·Popularly known as the bow men of Rajasthan ·They forms the largest tribe of the whole South Asia ·Divided into two main groups : Central or pure Bhils and  Eastern or Rajput Bhils ·They speak Bhili, which is an Indo Aryan language ·Religion practice among the Bhils differ from place to place ·The Baneshwar fair is the main festival celebrated during Shivratri
Munda  ( means headman of  the village)	Mainly Jharkhand Spread across  Bihar ,WB, Chhattisgarh and  Orissa	·They speak Mundari, which is a Austro- Asiatic language ·Complexion is blackish. They have short curly hair. ·Christianity is the main religion.` ·They believe in Singbonga, which means the Sun God ·They remained hunters for centuries. But now they have been converted into the settled agriculturist ·Mage, Phagu, Karam, Sarhul, and Sohrai are the few festivals celebrated
Santhals	West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand and Assam	·It is one of the largest tribe in India ·They wagged war against the permanent settlement of Lord Cornwallis in 1855. · They speak Santhali, which is a Austro- Asiatic language ·They are engaged in hunting, fishing and cultivation for their livelihood ·They have no temples of their own. They even do not worship any idols. Santhals follow the Sarna religion. ·They mainly celebrate the Karam festival to please the God to increase their wealth and free them from all the enemies.
Gonds	Widely spread in the Chhindwara district of   Madhya Pradesh, Bastar district ofChhattisgarh and also in the parts of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa.	·They are the largest tribe in Central India ·They speak Gondi language which is related to the Telgu and the other Dravidian languages. In the northern parts Gonds are often seen speaking the local Hindi. ·They are divided into four tribes namely - Raj Gonds, Madia Gonds, Dhurve Gonds, Khatulwar Gonds ·They are largely influenced by the Hindus and for the long time have been practicing the Hindus culture and traditions ·Keslapur Jathra is the important festival of the Gonds
Khasi	Mainly found  in the state of Assam and the Khasi Jaintia hills in Meghalaya Other places are Punjab, UP, Manipur, WB and J&K	·They are called by the different names such as Khasi Pahris, Khuchia, Kassi, Khashi and Khasa ·Most of the Khasis follow Christianity  ·They speak Khasi-an Austro- Asiatic language ·The property of the Khasis is passed on from the mother to the youngest daughter ·The women wear silver or gold crown on their head and men wear large earrings. ·Nongkrem is the major festival celebrated among the Khasi’s.
Baiga	Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa	·They are the forest-dwelling aboriginals from central India ·They do not interact with other tribal, believe in a hand-to-mouth existence. · Do not try to access education, eat outside their community, or associate with others  ·Tattooing is an integral part of their lifestyle
Birhor (means peoples of jungles)	Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa	·They are known as the hunter tribe. ·This tribe is a Proto-Australoid tribe, physically recognizable by their deep, dark-brown skin color and wavy, curly/frizzy black hair ·The tribe is divided into two major sub-tribes, the Jaghis Birhor(wandering, practice shift cultivation) and Uthalu Birho(settled, follow agro-based economy) ·Tanda: The settlement whether permanent or temporary, which consists of usually half a dozen or more huts ·In news because the tribe struggles to maintain traditional lifestyle in the face of government intervention
Chenchus	Andhra Pradesh,  Karnataka and Odisha	·They live in bee hive shaped tiny huts with wattle walls ·They speak Chenchu language with the Telgu accent ·They worship number of deities. They mainly believe in Bhagaban taru who lives in the sky and look after them  in all their doings ·They are referred to as one of the Primitive Tribal Groups that are still dependent on forests and do not cultivate land but hunt for a living ·Most of them inhabit in the Nallamalai hills of AP

North and North-West

Name	State	Description
Gaddis	Himachal Pradesh	·They mainly dwell around Dhauladhar mountain range, Chamba, Bharmaur and the areas near to Dharamshala ·The main occupation is shepherding and they make their livelihood by rearing and selling sheep, goats, mules and horses. ·Most of them are Hindus and a few Muslims ·The most attractive aspect about this tribe is their attire. ·They speak the Gaddi Language but for writing they use Takri and Hindi.
Pangwal	Himachal Pradesh	· They are the inhabitants of the Pangi valley of Chamba district ·They are known for their charming faces, fine physique and for their love of song and dance. ·They are mostly engaged in farming.
Bhutia (Baichung Bhutia? J)	Sikkim	·They are also known as the Lachenpas and Lachungpas ·They are of the Tibetan origin and migrated to   Sikkim around 16th century. ·They form 14% of the total population of Sikkim. ·They usually speak Sikkimese. They also speak Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali, English and Hindi. ·A traditional Bhutia house is called a "khim" and is usually rectangular. ·Losar and Losoong are the main festivals celebrated
Limbus/ Limboos	Sikkim	·They are one of the indigenous tribe of Sikkim belonging to Nepali stock · Mongoloid looking by figure having their own language, faith, costume, culture and life style. ·Their traditional group dance called Dhannach is famous usually performed in the marriage, death and any festive celebrations. ·They are farmers by profession and they love enjoying their life more by singing, feasting and dancing. ·The traditional dress of the Limbus is mekhli and taga.
Lepchas	Sikkim	·They are one of the indigenous tribe of Sikkim ·They look fair in complexion, shy in nature wearing generally a kind of set wear of shirt and trousers called Hontaj Gyador. ·They call themselves Rong in their language. ·They speak their own dialect and they too follow the same Tibetan form of Buddhism besides their local faith.
Buksa	Uttarakhand and UP	·They are one of the primitive tribal groups of India ·They  are indigenous people concerated in the Dehradun and Nainital in the Kumaonfoothills of the outer Himalayas ·Major occupation are agriculture and animal husbandry

North-East

Name	State	Description
Apatani or Tanni	Arunachal Pradesh	·They are settled agriculturists inhabiting the valley around Ziro-the headquarters of Lower Subansiri district. ·They practice permanent wetland cultivation in hilly terrain by slicing the hills. ·They are loyal followers of the Donyi-Polo faith, who pray to the Sun and the Moon ·Men of other tribes would often steal the Apatani women, which led the Apatani men to tattoo the faces of their women and make them wear massive nose plugs, in order to make them less appealing.
Adis/ Bokar Lhoba (meaning hill or mountain top)	Arunachal Pradesh , Assam	·They have two main divisions the Bogum and Bomis · They by nature are democratic and organized village council called Kebang ·Their traditional dance called Ponung is famous in the whole of Arunachal Pradesh. · Dances are very popular among them. ·The villages are situated generally on the spurs of hills ·The women are very good weavers and weave cloth with highly artistic designs.
Nyishis	Arunachal Pradesh	·They are the largest groups of people inhabiting the major part of Lower Subansiri district ·Their menfolk wear their hair long and tie it in a knot just above the forehead ·They are Indo-Mongoloid group of people and their language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family. ·The tribe as a whole is fond of hunting and fishing in which they perhaps excel any other neighboring tribes
Kampti	Arunachal Pradesh	·They are a sub-group of the Shan people Lohit district. ·They posses East Asian features. ·They are followers of Theravada Buddhism ·They have adopted a script of Shan origin, known as Lik-Tai for their language. · They are renowned for their craftsmanship.
Tagin	Arunachal Pradesh	·They are main inhabitant of Upper Sunansiri district. ·Their main occupation is agriculture. ·Polygamy is customary among them. · Their dress is very simple consisting of only one piece of cloth.
Angami	Nagaland	·Tenyidie is the most common language spoken ·Population is around 12 million. ·Agriculture is the main occupation. ·Christianity is the major religion followed  ·They are quite popular for their woodcraft and artwork( producer of bamboo work, cane furniture, beds, shawls and powerful machetes) ·Sekrenyi is the main festival celebrated which marks the beginning of the lunar year
Rengmas	Nagaland	·They are one of the seventeen major Naga Tribes. ·They follow patriarchal system. ·Originally they were animist. They believed in various gods and goddess. The Christianity is also present among the tribe. ·Agriculture is the main occupation. They practices Jhumming. Women are expert weavers. ·Nyada is the main festival celebrated. This is to mark the end of the agricultural years. ·Note: A section of them have migrated to Karbi Anglong districts of Assam
Sema /Sumi Nagas	Nagaland and Assam	·They are one of the major tribes of Nagaland recognized for their martial art skills. ·They mainly inhibit Zunheboto district. ·They are most united and aggressive tribe. ·Tuluni is the major festival celebrated. ·They follow Christianity.
Zeliang	Nagaland	·The Zeliang is the official name of the Zemi and Liangmei people in Nagaland · They live primarily in the south-western part of Kohima district ·The Hega festival is one of the most important and the biggest festival. ·They inhabit Barrail range of hills in Manipur, Nagaland and Assam. ·They are very famous for their sanitation and hygiene.
Konyak (means blackhead or human)	Nagaland	·They are the largest out of 17 officially recognized tribes in Nagaland, ·They are known as 'those violent headhunters with tattooed faces.' ·One of the last headhunters, they now practice agriculture and hunt seasonally ·The most important festival is AolingMonyu which is celebrated in spring season and the occasion is related to the sowing of seeds. ·More than 95% of them follow Christianity. · The men wear earrings made out of deer horn, necklace made out of boar tusks and brass heads.
Garos	Meghalaya	·They are the second-largest tribe in Meghalaya and comprise about a third of the local population. ·They are mainly Christians. ·The youngest daughter inherits the property from her mother. Sons leave the parents' house at puberty, and are trained in the village bachelor dormitory. After getting married, the man lives in his wife's house. ·They are a matrilineal not matriarchal society.
Jaintias	Meghalaya	·They are traced in the Jaintia hills. ·They belong to the Proto Autroloid Monkhmer race ·Basically it is a sub tribe of Khasis and since they have been residing in Jaintia hills, they have been named so. ·Most of them follow Christianity ·The men wear Jymphong and dhoti while the women wrap several pieces of clothes so as to give a cylindrical shape.
Reang	Tripura	·They are the second largest tribal community of Tripura. ·They are said to have came first from Shan State of upper Burma. ·They belong to Indo-Mongoloid racial stock. ·Their language is known as "Kaubru" which have a tonal effect of Kuki language though broadly it is Kok-Borok (language of men).  ·They are still a nomadic tribe and a large numbers among them maintain their livelihood involving Top Hill Jhum Cultivation, food gathering, fishing & hunting. ·They follow Hindu religion.
Lushais	Tripura	·They belong to Kuki-Chin group of tribes. ·They are commonly known as Mizos. ·They live on Jhum Cultivation and hunting of wild animal. They are also famous as orange producing community. ·They follow Christianity as their religion.  ·Their Bamboo Dance (Cheraw-dance) is very much popular in and outside the country.
Kuki	Manipur	·An ethnic tribe spread across vast areas of North-eastern region of India except Arunachal Pradesh, Burma and foot hills of Chittagong hills ·They form a part of the great Mongolian race · They prefer to live on the hill tops and their villages are cluster of houses closely constructed to protect from alien raiders. ·Mainly followers of Christianity and Judaism
Bodos	Assam	·They belong to Indo-Mongoloid family. It is believed that their origin was Tibet and China. ·The speak Bodo language that is derived Tibeto Burmese family of language ·Most of them are engaged in rice cultivation, tea plantation and poultry farming. Women engage themselves in weaving  ·They are expert in bamboo and cane craft; hence one would usually come across houses fashioned out of bamboo and wood in places where they live in majority ·Some of them  are Christians, while a large chunk follows the precepts of Hinduism
Mishing /Miris	Assam	·They are the second largest schedule tribe of Assam. ·As per tradition they practice group fishing in   winter and group hunting in summer. The women are expert weavers. ·The ‘Ali-Ai-Ligang' is the most well-known and widely observed festival (festival of sowing seeds) ·They have their own language, but no script: hence they use the Assamese language when the written form is required
Karbi/ Mikirs	Assam	·They belong to the Mongoloid group and linguistically to the Tibeto-Burman group ·They reside in hilly areas of Assam and form the major portion of population of Karbi Anglong district. They also inhabit places in North Cachar Hills, Nagaon and Sonitpur districts of Assam ·Their main occupation is agriculture. ·The place of women is same as the men, and women help their men in every step of life ·Dance and Music play an important role in their life  ·They are mentioned as Mikir in the constitution of India.
Rahabas	Assam	·They are widely scattered but mostly concentrated on Goalpara, Kamrup, and Darrang. ·Agriculture is the main occupation ·Traditionally they were very religious. Now most of them have embraced Hinduism or Christianity. ·They like to live in compact blocks having 50-100 families.
Biate (means worshipper)	Mizoram, Assam and Meghalaya	·They are also one of the oldest living tribes in the NE. ·Though they are less in term of population, they have their own identity with a rich and distinctive history, culture, dialect and religious heritages..

Central India

Name	State	Description
Khonds / Dongaria Khonds	Orissa	·They are indigenous tribal groups in Orissa. · Their native language is Kui, a Dravidian language written with the Oriya script. · They are nature worshipping forest dwellers. ·Vedanta Resources, mining company, was set to destroy the forests, wildlife and way of life of the Dongria Kondh people. Their four year long protests finally paid off as the government has now banned Vedanta from mining in Niyamgiri Mountain and in their forests.
Bonda	Odisha	·They are also known as Bondo or Remo ·They live in the isolated hill regions of the Malkangiri district of southwestern Odisha. ·They are one among the Primitive Tribal Groups identified by GOI. ·They are generally semi-clothed, the women wear thick silver neck bands. ·The Gov of Orissa had setup Bonda Development Agency (BDA) in 1977 with the aim of bringing Bonda’s into the mainstream
Oarons /Kurukh	Odisha ,Bihar, Jharkhand, WB	·They mainly depend on agriculture for earning their living. ·Most of them are engaged in the occupation of tea cultivation. ·They are considered to have the second largest population of tribes in Bihar and Jharkhand ·They speak Kurukh language related to Dravidian family. ·Majority of them are Hindus and are religious   minded people. They worship Gods and Goddesses but a great number of these tribes have adopted Christianity.
Khairwar	Madhya Pradesh	·It is on the brink of extinction because of the tribe members' inability to conceive ·They reside in a remote village called Harrai. ·There are only about 30 families left -- all childless couples who are either old or middle-aged and past their reproductive age.
Kol (means human)	Madhya Pradesh Other states include Bihar, UP, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tripura	·It is one of the most ancient tribes of India, whose mention is found in the Rig Veda and many other mythological scriptures. ·Most of them are landless and work on farm as laborers and sharecroppers ·They prefer to live in groups near the villages called as Kolhan
Murias	Chhattisgarh	·They are a sub-group of the Gonds and inhabit the forests and plains of central India. They live along the Indrawati River, which flows through the Bastar district. ·They survive mainly by farming, hunting, and   eating the fruits of the forest. ·The ghotul, or temporary dormitory for unmarried youth, is a significant building within the Muria villages
Pahari Korwa/ Korba	Chhattisgarh, Bihar	·They belong to Austro-Asiatic family ·The Korwas are divided into Pahari Korwa and Dihari Korwa. ·The main concentration is in Jashpur, Sarguja & Raigarh. ·They are medium to short height have a dark brown or black skin. ·Fishing and hunting are practiced as occupation. ·Karma dance is very popular dance and all the villagers participate in it.
Maria	Chhattisgarh	·Two types: Abhuj Maria and Bison Horn Maria ·Both are sub castes of the Gond tribals. ·Abhuj Maria: ØThey live in isolation and inhabit the secluded enclaves of Narayanpur tehsil of Bastar District ØThey fear mankind ØThey are one of the few tribes that have many to keep their quintessential culture alive and unaffected by the vestiges of time ·Bison Horn Maria: ØThey are found in MP and Maharashtra also ØTheir introvert nature makes them live in isolation in the interiors of dense forest areas ØThey derived their name from their unique custom of wearing a distinctive headdress, which resembles the horns of a wild bison

Western India

Name	State	Description
Sahariya (meaning residents of Jungle)	Rajasthan	·Only primitive tribe of Rajasthan residing in the Baran district ·They follow Hindu religion and speak a dialect influenced by Hadoti. ·Faced with social ignorance, anger, deprivation and inhuman treatment inherent in the system, the people of this tribe are once again in the miserable condition. · In the absence of sources of livelihood, this tribal group is again forced to resort to migration
Mina/ Meena (meaning fish)	Rajasthan	· They are found in the northern part of Rajasthan. ·Originally a nomadic, warlike people practicing animal breeding and known for lawlessness, today most of them are farmers. ·At the time of British rule, this community had been acclaimed as criminal tribe ·Majority of them follow Hinduism

South India

Name	State	Description
Irulas (meaning darkness)	Tamil Nadu	·They are inhabitants of the scrub jungles of Southern India belonging to the Negrito (or Negroid) race · Hunter-gatherers by tradition, their expertise in catching snakes is legendary ·Most of them are wage laborers working in tea estates now. ·They are partly Hinduized, but have their own indigenous religious system
Badagas	Tamil Nadu	·It is one of the oldest tribal communities in the Nilgiris. ·The main occupation of the people in this community is agriculture. Tea plantation is the major agriculture here. · They are socially, educationally and even economically advanced now.  ·The Badaga language is a mixture of Kannada and Tamil and there is no script for this language. ·They are Hindus of Shiva sect.
Kota (Ko meaning mountain)	Tamil Nadu	·They have been living in the Nilgiri mountains for ages ·They are found living only in seven settlements, referred to by them as Kokkals · They are the only artisan community on the hills of the Nilgiris ·Most of the crafts practiced by them are on the decline. ·The major festival is the annual Kamatra-ya festival
Kanis	Kerala	·They belong to a traditionally nomadic community, who now lead a primarily settled life in the forests of the Agast-Hymalai hills of the Western Ghats ·They have an extremely rich and unique Traditional Knowledge about the use of the resources, particularly the biological resources around them ·They introduced Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) to a medicinal plant in their forest from which a drug named 'jeevani' was isolated and commercialized
Uralis (means ruler of a locality)	Kerala and Tamil Nadu	·They  are mostly found on the Idukki hillsof Kerala ·Agriculture is the main occupation. ·They worship nature as Gods and inventor of the world. ·They have their own native language called as Urali language
Lambada / Banjaras/ Sugalisa	Andhra Pradesh	·They are the largest tribe of AP. ·They live in exclusive settlements of their own called Tandas, usually away from the main village, tenaciously maintaining their cultural and ethnic identity. ·They are expert cattle breeders and largely subsist by sale of milk and milk products.

Island Region

Name	State	Description
Jarawas	Andaman	·They are one of the indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands. They have inhabited the islands for thousands of years ·Their present numbers are estimated at between 250–400 individuals. · Since they have largely shunned interactions with outsiders, many particulars of their society, culture and traditions are poorly understood.
Sentinelese	Andaman	·Theyare one of the Andamanese indigenous peoples and one of the most remote tribes of the Andaman Islands. ·They inhabit North Sentinel Island. ·They are noted for vigorously resisting attempts at contact by outsiders. · The Sentinelese maintain an essentially hunter-gatherer society subsisting through hunting, fishing, and collecting wild plants; there is no evidence of either agricultural practices or methods of producing fire. ·Their language remains unclassified.
Shompens	Great Nicobar Island	·They are one of the last surviving stone-age tribes in the world. ·They wander in their forest and coastal habitat in search of food. ·They are also on the brink of extinction as the four other hunter-gatherer tribes (the Jarawa, the Andamanese, the Onge and the Sentinelese). ·They are of mongoloid stock unlike the other primitive tribes of the Andaman Islands which are negrito
Onges (means ‘we people’)	Little Andaman	· A negrito tribe with just 96 in number now. They are divided into 5 families comprising of 15 members in all living in South Bay ·They are pure hunter-gatherers and are not aware of agriculture ·They have no clear concept of religion but they are animistic.