AP STATE FINANCE COMMISSION

            Article 243I of the Indian Constitution prescribes that the Governor of a State shall, as soon as may be within one year from the commencement of the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992, and thereafter at the expiration of every fifth year, constitute a Finance Commission to review the financial position of the Panchayats and to make recommendations to the Governor as to

1. The principles which should govern
1. The distribution between the State and the Panchayats of the net proceeds of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the State, which may be divided between them under this Part and the allocation between the Panchayats at all levels of their respective shares of such proceeds;
2. The determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be assigned as, or appropriated by, the Panchayats;
3. The grants-in-aid to the Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the State;
2. The measures needed to improve the financial position of the Panchayats;
3. Any other matter referred to the Finance Commission by the Governor in the interests of sound finance of the Panchayats.

            Article 243Y of the Constitution further provides that the Finance Commission constituted under Article 243 I shall make similar recommendation vis-a-vis municipalities.

            The Governor is required to cause every recommendation made by the State Finance Commission together with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken thereon to be laid before the Legislature of the State.

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A comparison between central and State finance commissions:

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RBI Recommendations (2009) for strengthening SFCs

1.     Provide a uniform template to the SFCs so that there are not constituted in a casual manner

2.     Incentivise the State Governments to set up a data warehouse for the local bodies.

3.     Set up a central pool of fiscal experts from which the State Governments may select at least one member of SFC.

4.     Provide a time line to the State Governments in link to the release of share in central taxes for making progress in the arena of SFC.

Way Forward:

1.     In line with constitutional requirements, the states should constitute SFCs in a periodic manner

2.     It is important to acknowledge the role of SFCs. It is important to rectify the notion the SFCs are less important the UFC and that local governments are insignificant. The Constitution treats a local government on a par with a State government, especially when it comes to sharing of financial resources.

3.     The information of responsibilities and funds allocated to local bodies should be recorded properly so as to provide reliable data to the SFCs

4.     The composition of SFCs should incorporate representatives from the intellectual civil society/academicians and not solely comprise of bureaucrats

5.     To make India a sustainable and inclusive country, it is important that the UFC reduce inter-state disparity and then only SFCs can reduce intra-state disparity by using horizontal distribution criteria

6.     It is an urgent need to strengthen the SFCs to promote cooperative federalism and strengthen participatory democracy.

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INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENCE

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NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed by the Community and all the Member States at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992, and come into effect in 29th December 1993. It is an international legally binding treaty. The Convention has three main goals:

§ conservation of biological diversity

§ sustainable use of its components

§ fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

For realizing the objectives of CBD, Government of India enacted an umbrella legislation called the biological Diversity Act 2002 aimed at conservation of biological resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process.

§ To implement this Act central government established a body called as National Biodiversity Authority, under the power conferred by section 8 of CBD Act. It started functioning from 1st October 2003. The NBA is an Autonomous body .The main functions of the Authority are, according to Ministry of environment and forest.

§ It shall be the duty of the National Biodiversity Authority to regulate activities referred to in sections 3, 4 and 6 and by regulations issue guidelines for access to biological resources and for fair and equitable benefit sharing.

§ The National Biodiversity Authority may grant approval for undertaking any activity referred to in sections 3, 4 and 6.

§ The National Biodiversity Authority may advise the Central Government on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources;

§ The National Biodiversity Authority may advise the State Governments in the selection of areas of biodiversity importance to be notified under sub‑section (1) of section 37 as heritage sites and measures for the management of such heritage sites;

§ The National Biodiversity Authority may perform such other functions as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act.

§ The National Biodiversity Authority may, on behalf of the Central Government, take any measures necessary to oppose the grant of intellectual property rights in any country outside India on any biological resource obtained from India or knowledge associated with such biological resource which is derived from India.

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It is a 3 tier system

1.              At national Level: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

2.              At State Level: State Biodiversity Boards (SBB’s) – Advise the State Governments, subject to guidelines issued by the Central Government, on matters relating to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of utilization of biological resources.

3.              On local Level: Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC’s) – Prepare, maintain and validate People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR) in consultation with the local people. T Advice on any matter referred to it by the State Biodiversity Board or Authority for granting approval.

Currently there are  SBBs in 26 States, and around 33,426 BMCs. BMC’s can be a major tool for implementation this whole system but actually it is not working. There are not all areas of country which have proper BMC’s working there and this register maintenance is these days is just a matter of formality. Current chairman of authority is Dr. Balakrishna Pisupati , and office is situated at Chennai.

Biological Diversity Act 2002

(Sources: National Biodiversity Authority, MEOF )

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DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

The "Demographic Transition" is a model that describes population change over time. It is based on an interpretation begun in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson, of the observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the past two hundred years or so.

The demographic transition model seeks to explain the transformation of countries from having high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.

The model is based on the change in crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR) over time. Each is expressed per thousand populations. The CBR is determined by taking the number of births in one year in a country, dividing it by the country's population, and multiplying the number by 1000.

The crude death rate is similarly determined. The number of deaths in one year is divided by the population and that figure is multiplied by 1000.

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Stage I

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, countries in Western Europe had a high CBR and CDR.

Birth Rate is high as a result of:

• Lack of family planning
• High Infant Mortality Rate: putting babies in the 'bank'
• Need for workers in agriculture
• Religious beliefs
• Children as economic assets

Death Rate is high because of:

• High levels of disease
• Famine
• Lack of clean water and sanitation
• Lack of health care
• War
• Competition for food from predators such as rats
• Lack of education

The high CBR and CDR were somewhat stable and meant slow growth of a population.

Stage II

In the mid-18th century, the death rate in Western European countries dropped due to improvement in sanitation and medicine. Out of tradition and practice, the birth rate remained high. This dropping death rate but stable birth rate in the beginning of Stage II contributed to skyrocketing population growth rates. Over time, children became an added expense and were less able to contribute to the wealth of a family.

Death Rate decreases as a result of:

• Improved health care (e.g. Smallpox Vaccine)
• Improved Hygiene (Water for drinking boiled)
• Improved sanitation
• Improved food production and storage
• Improved transport for food
• Decreased Infant Mortality Rates

Stage III

Along with advances in birth control, the CBR was reduced through the 20th century in developed countries. Populations still grew rapidly but this growth began to slow down.

There are several factors contributing to this eventual decline:

• Infant Mortality Rate declined.
• Increasing urbanization changes the traditional values placed upon fertility and the value of children in rural society. Urban living also raises the cost of dependent children to a nuclear family (education acts and child labor acts increased dependency through the late 1800s). People begin to assess more rationally just how many children they desire or need. Once traditional patterns of thinking are broken the decline is likely to accelerate.
• Increasing female literacy and employment lower the uncritical acceptance of childbearing and motherhood as measures of the status of women.
• Improvements in contraceptive technology.

Stage IV

In the late 20th century, the CBR and CDR in developed countries both leveled off at a low rate. It is characterized by stability. In this stage the population age structure has become older. In some cases the fertility rate falls well below replacement and population decline rapidly.

Drawbacks of Model

The model does not provide "guidelines" as to how long it takes a country to get from Stage I to III. Western European countries took centuries through some rapidly developing countries are transforming in mere decades. The model also does not predict that all countries will reach Stage III and have stable low birth and death rates. There are factors such as religion that keep some countries' birth rate from dropping. 

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INFLUENCE OF HIMALAYAS IN INDIAN CONTINENT

The Great Himalayas, consisting of a series of parallel ranges and having about 2500km length from west to east stands like a great wall on the northern side of Indian continent. The most significant geographical structure of India influences our nation in such a way that no other mountain system have influenced any other nation.

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1.              PHYSICAL BARRIER : It acts as a compound wall that separates India from central and East Asian countries. It also accounts for the difference in climatic and weather patterns between Indian sub-continent from the rest of Asia.

2.              NATURAL FRONTIER : The Himalayas acts as a defense barrier and have been protecting India from foreign invasions since early times. History gives us the evidence that no invaders attacked India after crossing the Himalayas. Even though China's aggression is an exception, the significance of Himalayas cannot be ignored completely.

3.              CLIMATIC INFLUENCE : The Himalayas play a very important role in influencing the climate of India. India is a monsoon land only because of the presence of Himalayas. It traps the monsoon winds from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal and forces them to shed their moisture content within the Indian sub-continent in the form of snow and rain. It also blocks the cold winter storms of East Asia from entering India, thus protecting us from severe cold. The Himalayas splits the westerly jet streams into two branches such that the southward branch entering India plays a significant role in bringing the monsoon.

4.              SOURCE REGION OF RIVERS : The Himalayas is the abundant reservoir of Great Indian rivers such as Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra. The snow melt in summer and precipitation in winter makes them perennial rivers. i.e, having water throughout the year. The abundant waterfall, huge snowfield and large glaciers feed these drainage systems. The Himalayan rivers give life to the northern India.

5.              FERTILITY OF SOIL : The entire northern plains were made by the Himalayas. The Himalayan Rivers carry slits on their way down and deposit in the northern plain. These alluvial deposits are responsible for the high fertility of this land. Therefore, it is often said that northern great plain is a gift of Himalayas.

6.              HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PROJECTS : The Himalayan valley with natural waterfalls offers the best location for construction of dams. The vast potential of Himalayan rivers offer a great range for construction of many mainstream dams.

7.              BIODIVERSITY AND VEGETATION : The Himalayan ranges is famous for its rich biodiversity. There is altitudinal zonation of vegetation from the tropic to the alpine. The forests provide fuel woods, medicinal plants and various raw materials that are needed for the forest based industries. Rich pastures for grazing is also an adding feature of the Himalayas.

8.              AGRICULTURE : The Himalayas does not have much flat lands, so offers slopes that are terraced for cultivation. The major crop is Rice. Crops like wheat, maize, potatoes, ginger, and tobacco are also cultivated. Tea is a unique crop which grows only on hill slopes. Many fruits such as apples, pears, peaches, mulberries, cherries along with citrus fruits are grown in the Himalayan region.

9.              MINERAL RESOURCES : Himalayan region contain many valuable mineral resources. The tertiary rocks have vast potential of mineral oil. Coal is found in Kashmir. Also minerals such as Copper, Cobalt, Nickel, Zinc, Lead, Antimony, Tungsten, Limestone, Gypsum and Magnetite are also present in the Himalayan locality. The presence of Gold, Silver and other semi-precious and precious stones are also the feature of Himalayan region.

10.         TOURISM : The beautiful landscapes on Himalayan mountain offer a great tourist spot. Increasing popularity of winter sports, snowfall and the cool climate, when neighboring places are under the scorching heat of summer attracts millions of tourists from different parts of the world. Hill stations such as Missouri, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, Chamba, Ranikhat, Almora, Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok etc. provide huge scope of tourism due to its scenic beauty as well as healthy environment.

11.         PILGRIMAGE : The Himalayas is known as the house of Gods. Apart from its tourist places, the region is studded with sanctified shrines. Kedarnath, Badrinath, Vaishnodevi, Kailash, Amarnath, Tungnath, Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri etc. which are at high altitudes are famous pilgrim centers in the Himalayas.

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BAHAMANI KINGDOM

Bahamani Kingdom (1347–1527)

The Bahmani Sultanate or Bahmanid Empire was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and was one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms. It was North Deccan region to the river Krishna. According to some Muslim historian a rebel chieftain of Saulatabad (an area around Ellora), was under Muhammad Bin Tughalaq. The sultanate was founded on 3rd of August 1347 by the Turkish Governor Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah/ Hasan Gangu/ Allauddin Hassan, possibly of Tajik-Persian descent, who revolted against the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq. Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi sultanate stepped down on that day in favour of Zafar Khan/ Hassan Gangu who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan, including parts of present day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire to the south.

The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar). The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466–1481) of Mahmud Gawan. About eighteen kings ruled during the nearly 200 years. After 1518 the kingdom got divided into four smaller ones like Barishahi (Bidar), Kutbshahi (of Golkonda), Adamshahi( of Ahmadnagar), and Adilshahi (of Bijapur), known collectively as the Deccan sultanates.

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History of Bahamani Kingdom :

Allauddin Hassan, a man of humble origin assumed the name of Gangu Bahamani in memory of his patron, a brahmin. Hasan Gangu declared the founder of the Bahamani Dynasty and ruled it under the title of Bahaman Shah. Bahamani was in constant war with south, kingdom of Vijaynagar.

Firuz Shah Bahamani left his remarkable foot prints over the Bahamani history. He was a learned man and having knowledge of many religions and natural science. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. He waged three battles against Vijaynagar Empire, and also extended his territories of Warangal. He gave up his kingdom and throne to his brother Ahmed shah I. Agriculture was the main economic activity of Bahamani kingdom for earning the main revenue of the state.

The nobles in the Bahamani Kingdom were classified into two categories, Deccanis (old comers) and the Afaquis (new comers). They were always having problem of difference of opinion. Mahmud Gawan was a minister in Bahamani Empire who expanded and extended the Bahamani Kingdom rapidly. He was categorized as Afaqui and hence it was difficult for him to win the trust and confidence of the Deccanis. He was executed at the age of seventy by Muhammad Shah of Deccan in the year 1482 for his policy which made matters worse in Deccanis and Afaquis.

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Culture of Bahamani :

The Bahamani kingdom flourished in architectural monuments. In the field of architecture, the Bahamanis paved way for the distinct style by inviting architects from Persia, Turkey, and Arabia and blended it with local styles. The culture that developed during this time was a blend of both north and south styles and also had its own distinct styles. Gumbaz (the largest dome in the world) and Charminar located at Hyderabad are the world famous examples of Bahamani architecture. The Bahanamis of Deccan left an important heritage of Indo-Islamic art, language, and spread of Islamic tradition in South India. Hazrat Banda Nawaz (1321 - 1422 CE) the great Sufi saint was patronized by the Bahamani kings and his Dargah of Gulbarga is a place of pilgrimage for Hindus and Muslims alike. Mahmud Gawan arrived in Bidarfrom Persia in 1453. A great scholar of Islamic lore, he founded the Madarassa (institution) from his own funds on the line of universities of Samarkhand and Khorasan. A selefless worker, he became a prime-minister of Bahamani king Mahmud III (1462- 82) whom he tutored in earlier days. But Gawan became a victim of the palace intrigue and was beheaded by the drunkern king. The later kings of the Bahamani dynasty were too weak to keep the kingdom in tact, and this led to the breakup

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List of Bahmani Sultans :
During the 191 years of Bahmani reign following rulers ruled with Gulbarga and Bidar as their capital:

Gulbarga Period ( 75 years )
*Aladdin Hassan Bahman Shah/ Abu'l Muzaffar/ Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah (August 3, 1347 – Feb 11, 1358 AD)
Hasan Gangu s/o Kaikaus s/o Muhammad s/o Ali (there are different opinions)
Capital: Gulbarga
Founder of Bahmani Dynasty of Deccan
Original name was Hasan Gangu or Hansan Kanku and also bore the title of Zafar Khan.

Nasir-ud-din Ismail Shah asked Zafar Khan to become the King with the title of ‘Sikandar- uth- thani Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah al-wali’. The new King was crowned on Friday Aug 3, 1347 in the mosque of Qtub-ud-din Mubarak Shah Khalji at Daulatabad. According to one historian, Hasan was the nephew of Malik Hizhbar-ud-din entitled Zafar Khan' Alai, who was killed in 1298 AD when Hasan was only 6 years old.

The first act of the new king was to transfer his title of Zafar Khan to prince Muhammad. King adopted the title of Bahman. He sent Qutbul Mulk who conquered Kotgir, Maram, Mahendri and Akkal Kot. Qir Khan was sent to conquer Kalyan. After the news of this great victory of Kalyan, King renamed Daulatabad to Fatahabad.

Sikandar was send to Malkher which was held by the Hindu Zamindars who opposed first but subdued later. Krishna Nayak of Tilangana entered into treaty and became friend of Sikandar and loyal to the King. Quir Khan revolted and was beheaded by the king. King renamed Gulbarga as Ahsanabad and made it the capital of Deccan.

The King died on Rabi-ul-awwal 1, Feb 11, 1358 at the age of 67.

Silver Coins struck in the name of Bahman Shah in 760 AH indicates that he might have died some time in 760 AH and hence Muhammad Shah I ascended the throne in 760 AH.

*Mohammed or Muhammed Shah I/ Zafar Khan (Feb 11, 1358 - April 21, 1375)
Son of Bahman Shah
Capital: Gulbarga.

Muhammad Shah ascended the throne. He is better known as organizer of Bahmani Kingdom and founder of its institutions. His Silver throne from his father was replaced by the magnificent ‘Takht-e-Firoza’ (Turquoise Throne) on March 23, 1363 presented to him by Raya of Tilangana. He constructed ‘Jama Masjid’ in Gulbarga Fort and Shah Bazaar Masjid in Gulbarga town. His father Alauddin Bahman Shah, Mohammed was involved in wars with Vijayanagar. However he also became embroiled in wars with Warangal. Sultan invaded Tilangana, Kanya Nayak offered Huns, elephants and horses along with Golkunda Town. Sultan died on Zi-qada April 21, 1375 AD from drinking too much.

Silver Coins struck in the name of Muhammad Shah I in, Silver coin of and a Gold coin is also known. No coin of his successor Mujahid Shah is known. Mujahid Shah's Gold coin is known. This indicates that Muhammad Shah I might have died in 1375 and issue may be a posthumously in his Mujahid Shah's reign.


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*Aladdin Mujahid Shah (April 21, 1375 - April 16, 1378)
Son of Muhammad Shah
Capital: Gulbarga

Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Aladdin Mujahid Shah at the age of 19. Mujahid Shah was murdered by Masud Khan (son of Mubarak Khan) and Daud Khan.

*Da'ud Shah (April 16, 1378 - May 21, 1378)
Son of Mahmud Shah S/o Bahman Shah
Capital: Gulbarga.

Immediately on Mujahid's murder Daud Shah proclaimed king of Deccan and all those present paid homage to him. It is said that Ruh Parwar Agha (Mujahid's sister) got Daud murdered through a royal slave Bakah while he was attending Friday prayer of Muharram, in great mosque of Gulbarga Fort.

*Mohammed Shah II (May 21, 1378 - April 20, 1397 AD)
Son of Mahmud Shah S/o Bahman Shah
Capital: Gulbarga

Ruh Parwar after taking revenge of her brother's death, blinded Sanjar ( S/o Daud I ). She put Muhammad II brother of Daud I on throne. Muhammad Shah II's 19 year reign was one of the most peaceful period in the whole Bahmani history. Since he had no son so he adopted two sons Firoz Shah and Ahmad I of his uncle Ahmad Khan s/o Bahman Shah. But after the birth of Tahmatan Shah, Muhammad on his death bed wished that Ghiyasuddin Tahmatan Shah should succeed him and Firoz and Ahmad should pay homage to him.

Muhammad died of typhoid on. The next day died the grand old man of the Deccan Mallik Saif-ud-din Ghori who had lived through five reigns and who was the Prime Minister of Bahmani State in the time of storm and three of four rulers.

*Ghiyath ud-Din/ Ghiyas-Ud-Din-Tahmatan Shah (April 20, 1397 - June 14, 1397 AD)
S/o Muhammad Shah II
Capital : Gulbarga.

Muhammad's elder son Ghiyas-ud-din Tahmatan Shah succeeded to the throne without any trouble. Taghalchin (Turkish slave) who wanted to be the Prime Minister arranged a big feast at which king was also invited. Taghalchin blinded the king on Ramadan, and imprisoned him at Sagar and his step brother Shams-ud-din Daud II was put on the throne.

*Shams-ud-Din/ Shams- ud-Din Daud Shah II(June 14, 1397 AD - Nov 15, 1397 AD)
S/o Muhammad II
Capital: Gulbarga.

The first thing the boy king was made to do was to promote Taghalchin to be the Malik Naib and Mir Jumla of the kingdom. The manumitted slave girl who was Shamsuddin's mother was now raised to the rank and title of Makhduma-i-Jahan (Dowager Queen). Taghalchin tried to persuade Shamsuddin to imprison Firoz and Ahmad and asked king's mother to have them done to death. On hearing of the conspiracy the two brothers fled to Sagar. Firoz proclaimed himself king making his younger brother Ahmad Khan Amir-ul-umra, Mir Fazlil-lah Inju Wakil (Prime Minister). He had the blind boy Ghiyasuddin Tahmatan with him. He directly attacked into the Darbar Hall. Taghalchin and his son was killed Daud II was blinded and allowed to move Mecca with his mother. Shamsuddin Daud II died in 1414 AD at Mecca.

*Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah (Nov 16, 1397 - Sep 22, 1422 AD)
S/o Ahmad Khan s/o Bahman Shah
Capital: Gulbarga.

Firoz Shah was one of the most learned of Indian sovereigns. He was a good calligrapher and poet (poetic name Uruji or Firozi). Among other public works he under took the construction of an Observatory on the chain of hills near Daulatabad called Balaghat which could not be completed due to his death.

‘Hazrat Khwaja Syed Muhammad Gesu Draz’ was a Sufi (saint) and was deeply related with the Bahmani kings and the people of Gulbarga. He was the s/o Syed Yusuf who came to Daulatabad in the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. Hazrat was born on Jan 30, 1331 and started living near ‘Gulbarga Jama Masjid’. He died on Nov 1, 1422 AD at the age of 105 years.

Firoz Shah paid tribute to him. He gave him many villages for his maintenance.
He knows and can carry translation in Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali and many other languages. He tamed prince Bukka and Harihara of Vijayanagar and Narasingha of Kherla in battle.

Firoz's army tried to kill Ahmad Khan (brother of Firoz) but defeated in battle fought cleverly by Ahmad. Gates of the city was opened for Ahmad and he was taken to dying king Firoz. Firoz died on Sep 28, 1422.



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Bidar Period ( 116 years )
*Ahmad Shah I Wali/ Ahmed Shah Al Wali Bahamani/ Shihab-Ud-Din Ahmad I (1422 – 1436)
S/o Ahmad Khan s/o Bahman Shah
Capital: Bidar

At the begening of his reign he suffered the shock of the death of ‘Hazrat Khwaja Syed Muhammad Gesu Draz’. He decided and shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. He made Khalaf Hasan Basri as his Wakil-e-Saltanate (Prime Minister).

He constructed the Tomb of Gesu Daraz at Gulbarga any buidings at Bidar.

Ahmad Shah attacked Vijayanagar and over powered Vijayaraya I. In the last year of his reign he appointed his eldest son Ala-ud-din Zafar Khan to be his heir, giving him the full charge of kingdom. King died after a short illness.

He was a great patron of arts and culture. He brought artisans from Iran, including the metal-worker Abdulla-bin-Kaiser, who was the father of bidriware, the inlaying of zinc alloy with silver and gold.

Ahmed Shah's, and his empress's, tomb is located in Ashtur village, Bidar District, and is the subject of an annual ‘urs’, or anniversary of death festival.

*Aladdin Ahmad Shah II (Apr 17, 1436 - May 6, 1458 AD)
S/o Ahmad Shah I
Capital: Bidar.

Ahmad I had been very successful as a king and when he died he was popular even to the extent of being regarded as a saint. His son Zafar Khan who asumed the title of Ahmad on his accession. He gave preference to newcomers from outside over the old in his cabinet. This created a great cleavage between them and the Dakhnis (old comers). He married the daughter of Raja of Sangmeswar and gave her the title of Zeba Chehra apart from the daughter of Nasir Khan Faruqi of Khandesh ‘Agha Zainab’.

There became two party, aparently the old-comers and the new-comers. King died early due to his wound in his shin (front of lower leg).

Silver Coins struck in the name of Ahmad Shah II in 838 AH has been reported. No coin of Ahmad Shah I has been reported so for. This confirms that Ahmad Shah II ascended the throne in 838 AH when Ahmad I was alive

*Aladdin Humayun Zalim Shah (May 7, 1458 - Sep 4, 1461 AD)
S/o Ahmad Shah II
Capital: Bidar.

Ahmad Shah II had nominated his eldest son Humayun heir to his throne. King made Khwaja Mahmud Gawan, Malik-ut-tujjar, trafdar of Bijapur and Wakil-e-Sultunate giving him full control of military matters. Humayun was a very short tempered and cruel man. He made his own cousin Sikandar Khan as Sipahsalar. Sikandar became rebellion and was crushed to death with the help of Mahmud Gawan. Humayun died on Sep 4, 1461.

Coins were struck in the name of Humayun Shah indicates that he might have died some time in Sep 4, 1461. Hence Ahmad Shah III ascended the throne in 1461.

*Nizam Shah/ Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III (Sep 4, 1461 - Jul 30, 1463 AD)
S/o Humayun Shah
Capital: Bidar.

On Humayun's death his son Ahmad succeeded to the throne as Nizam-ud-din Ahmad III at the age of 8. He was escorted to the throne by Shah Muhib-ul-la and Syed-us-Sadat Syed Hanif. Late king had nominated a council of Regency constituting of Khwaja-e-Jahan Turk, Mahmud Gawan with the Dowager Queen Makhduma-e-Jahan Nargis Begum. Master mind which ruled the country during the short reign of Ahmad Shah III was that of the great queen. All the political prisoners of Humayun period were released. Ahmad III died on the very night of his marriage on and was succeeded by his younger brother Muhammad Khan as Shams-ud-din Muhammad Shah III.

*Mohammed Shah III Lashkari/ Shams-Ud-Din Muhammad Shah III (Jul 30, 1463 - Mar 26, 1482 AD)
S/o Humayun Shah
Capital: Bidar.

Shamsuddin Muhammad was between 9 and 10 years when he succeeded his elder brother. He was escorted to the Turquoise Throne by Shah Mohib-ul-lah (who was released by his captor Mahmud Khalji of Malwa) and Syed Hanif. Nizam-ul-mulk murdered Khwaja-e-Jahan Turk (one of the member of the three party committee of Regency after the death of Humayun ) ) at the instance of Queen in the presence of boy king in 870 AH.

Mohammad Shah III got married at the age of 14 years. Dowager Queen retired from active role. Malik-ut-tujjar Mahmud Gawan was made Prime Minister. The Prime Minister ship of Mahmud Gawan saw the Bahmani State attaining high unequalled in the whole of its history. During this period Parenda Fort, Great College of Bidar and Madarsa at Bidar. Kherla was besieged in 872 AH. Kapileswar of Orissa was defeated in 1470 AD. Goa was annexed on 20th of Shaban 876 AH. Queen Dowager died in 877 AH.

Boundaries of Bahmani Kingdom now touching the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west. Mahmud Gawan was one of the first ministers in Medieval India to order a systematic measurement of land, fixing the boundaries of villages and towns and making a thorough enquiry into the assessment of revenue.

King annexed Kanchi on 1st Muharram, 886 AH. This was the southern most point ever reached by Bahmani. Nobles conspired against Khwaja Mahmud Gawan and prepared a false paper on behalf of Khwaja saying he wants Deccan to be partitioned between him and Purushottum of Orissa. King sentenced Khwaja to death on 5th Safar 886 AH at the age of 73. Later King came to know that Khwaja was innocent. He appointed his son Mahmud as his heir. He died on on 5th Safar 887 AH.

A silver Tanka of about 11 grams from the treasury of Muhammad Shah III dated 1472.

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*Mohammed Shah IV/Mahmud Shah/ Shihab-Ud-Din Mahmud (Mar 26, 1482 - Dec 27, 1518 AD)
S/o Ahmad Shah III
Capital: Bidar.

The long reign of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, was a period of gradual weakening of the state. He ascended the throne at the age of 12 years, when new-comers had been over thrown. New Regency was formed with Queen as president. Qasim Barid was entitled with Barid-ul-mumalik.
King began to indulge in wine, women and song and spent so much money that he had to extract many jewels from the Turquoise throne at the instigation of Qasim Barid. Qasim Barid forced Mahmud to make Prime Minister of the kingdom. Malik Ahmad Nizamul-mulk revolted and made a beautiful palace making it the center of his newly created capital, which he named after himself, Ahmadnagar. Qutbul-Mulk was appointed as the Governor of Tilangana in 1495-96 AD who controlled over Warrangal, Rajakonda, Dewarkonda and Kovilkonda. Qasim Barid died and was succeeded by his son Amir Barid. Ahmad Nizam died and succeeded by his son Burhan. Sultan died on Dec 27, 1518 AD.

*Ahmad Shah III/ Ahmad Shah IV (Dec 27, 1518 - Dec 15, 1520)
S/o Mahmud Shah
Capital: Bidar.

Amir Barid was very clever, He put Mahmud's son Ahmad on throne. Amir Barid was careful that king should not leave the palace but he actually set about to spoil his life and morals. New Sultan was forced to breakup the ancient crown of the Bahmanis, worth 15 lakes of Rupees (Rs. 1,500,000), and sell the jewels in order to provide himself with the means of ease and pleasure. Sultan died on Muharram Dec 15, 1520.

After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states, Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda, known collectively as the Deccan sultanates.

*Aladdin Shah (Dec 28, 1520 - Mar 5, 1523 AD)
S/o Ahmad Shah IV
Capital: Bidar.

Amir Barid's wish to become king was rekindled with Ahmad's death. He put the crown on Ahmad's son Ala-ud-din on Dec 28, 1520.The new Sultan was wise and courageous. Amir Barid conspired against him and Sultan was dethroned.

*Wali-Allah Shah/ Wali-Ul-Lah Shah (Mar 5, 1523 - 1526 AD)
S/o Mahmud Shah
Capital: Bidar.

Amir Barid put Waliullah son of Mahmud on throne. He was imprisoned in his own zanana (ladies room) and lived on bread and clothes provided to him by his master. Amir Barid married the pretty Bibi Sitti, Ahmad's widow who was just 22-23 yrs. Amir Barid was now a royal kinsman and was free to enter the zanana apartment of the palace. He began to make love with the queen. When Sultan resisted he was poisoned.

Coin of Waliullah and no coin of Alauddin Shah indicate that Alauddin Shah was dethroned and Waliullah ascended the throne.

Coins struck in the name of Kalimullah indicate that he ascended the throne and Wali-ullah died in 1526 AD.

*Kalim-Allah Shah/ Kalim-Ul-Lah Shah (1526 - 1527 AD)
S/o Mahmud Shah
Capital: Bidar

After 1538 Bahamani Empire gets converted in to 5 shahis. Kalimullah son of Mahmud Shah was the last king of the Bahmani Dynasty. He was closely guarded by Amir Barid. A new political force had now appeared on the Indian Horizon in the person of Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. All the rulers of Deccan i.e. Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Burhanpur sent their congratulations to the Mughal conqueror. Kalimulla also wrote letter to Babur to relieve him from Amir Barid. This news was leaked and out of fear of his life Kalimullah Shah fled to Bijapur in 1527 AD. He was not welcomed there. He left for Ahmadnagar. He was first received well by Burhan Nizamul Mulk, but never again called in open court. Kalimullah soon breathed his last in Ahmadnagar. The men of shahis rulers planned to murder him after he was got down from his post because they thought that he could regain the position. His coffin was brought to Bidar. His date of death could not be confirmed. After the death of Kalimullah his son Ilhamullah proceeded to Mecca and never returned.

Coins struck in his name in 951 and 952 AH say that the sultan must have stayed long at Ahmadnagar.

Coins struck in his name in 1527 AD, indicate that he ascended the throne in 1527 AD.

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ENVIRONMENT: INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS

Conventions and Protocols

International Summits relating to Environment

🔸Before United Nation ( Not important)

🔸After United Nation

International environment Law became get creation of UN and it's specialized agencies in 1945

Unofficial Summits and  Organisations

💠The first global conference on Environment UNESCO

·         -United nation educational scientific and cultural organisation held in 1968 @ Stock Holm

·         -This is also known as Human Conference on Environment

·         -Discussion :: On the Scientific Basis for rational use and conservation of resources

💠Green Issues in 1960s

·         During 1960s impact of human activities on the environment has resulted in new social , political , and ecological movement brought with the name of GREEN ISSUES

·         Green Network , Green Peace and Frames of the Earth are Non-Governmental Organisation throughout the world including India

·         These all initiatives Boosted environmental protection and preservation in the world

🔸GREEN PEACE

·         It's a group of 40 countries

·         Headquarters : Amsterdam

·         A Canadian Environmentalist introduced this word

·         It's main Objective is To make earth a better place to live and to create awareness among the people for climate change, deforestation, excessive fishing, genetic engineering and non nuclear issues

·         In 1989 European elections put green issues as a political agenda in their election campaign.

🔸GREEN PARTY

·         It was a political party work with ecological wisdom

·         Green Party aims to create adjust equitable and sustainable society with focus of various efforts for future prospects

1.  To fight against Genetically modified Organisms and Monsanto

2. To fight against builders lobby those are cementing the soil and water bodies

3. To push the boundaries of democratic space for natural land

OFFICIAL SUMMITS AND ORGANISATION

💠1972 Stock Holm Deceleration

o   Also known as UN Conference of Human Environment

ü  This is the first conference on human environment initiated by UNO

ü  Here try to observe or measure environment and it's relation shifts with human

ü  114 Countries have attended

ü  5th June has been decided as a WORLD ENVIRONMENT DAY

ü  This conference adopted a declaration containing 26 principles which are plant to motivate and direct people all around the globe in the production and improvement of the social situation

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💠UNEP UN Environmental Program

o   Stock Holm conference proposed a new UN Agency UNEP

o   It established on 1972 Nairobi

o   It sponsors many environmental Programs

ü  1. CITES (1973)

o   Conversion on the control of International Treat in Endangered Species of Wild, Flora and Fauna

o   formed at Washington

ü  2. CMS (1979)

Convention on Migratory Species

ü  3. VIENNA CONVENTION (1985)

ü  4. MANTREAL PROTOCAL (1987)

ü  5. BASEL CONVENTION (1989)

Ø  It implements various environmental Policies and practices by coordinating various departments

Ø  UNEP work with UN Bodies , Global institutions , NGOs , Private sector and public society

Ø  UNEP has also active in funding and implementing various environmental related projects

💠 IPCC Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change

·         WMO (World Meteorological Organization )  & UNEP established the Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change in 1988

GREEN INDEX

Published bu UNEP

This Index provides the combined data if GDP and economic growth of environment

GREEN GDP

·         It evaluate the monitory form of loss of biodiversity due to climate change

GLOBAL 500 AWARDS

·         It was started by UNEP in 1979

·         It is awarded to any individual or organization that deals with the environmental protection related issues at Political Social and Legal Level

CHAMPIONS OF THE EARTH

ü  UNEP established it in 2004

ü  As on annual awards programme to recognise outstanding environmental leaders at a policy level

ü  6 awards are given every year

ü  This award program is a successor of Global 500

ü  This is awarded for Public, private sector and Public society

ü  In 2018 total 7 awards are given

ü  India got 2 awards

1. Cochin International Airport  in entrepreneur category

2. Narendra Mody as a policy leadership

                      Other Category:: 

3. Science and innovation

4. Lifetime achievement award

5. Policy leadership

6. Inspiration and Action

7. General Champion

Why Modi got Champions of the Earth?

1. To boost up Solar Energy (International Solar Alliance)

2. To pledge to eliminate Single use of Plastic by 2022

Previously who received from India?

Mr. Tulasi R Tanti, Founder and Chairman and MD of Suzlan Energy Limited was named by the UNEP as a Champions of the Earth for 2009 for his entrepreneurs in climate change

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💠World Charter for Nature  1983

o   UN General Assembly established this after 10 years of completion of Stockholm Conference

o   It highlights the ethics of preservation by which all anthropogenic actions distressing environment must be directed and referred efficiently

💠Brundt Land Commission (1987)

o   World commission on Environment and development

o   UN General Assembly Establish WCED , Chaired by Narvian Prime Minister Gro Harlen Brundtland

o   No governmental control on UN system were involved in establishing the commission

This commission has given certain reports to keep mandate

a)    It acts as a catalyst which gives directions on international negotiation among countries concerned with environmental degradation and conservation.

b)    The report has immensely contributed to the ideology of sustainable development

c)    This report influence the concept of addressing the environmental matter in the contest of economic matter

d)    Some of the great contribution of this report are "Polluter Pay Principle", differential standards for developed and developing countries and various precautionary principles

💠Earth Summit June 1992

·         UN Conference on Environment and Development

·         Rio Degenario

·         Came into effect in March 1994

·         Major Aim: to reinforce the socio Economic development and limit of the environmental degradation through co operation between the emerging and advanced countries

·         This summit resulted in following documents

(1) Rio Declaration for Environmental protection

(2) Agenda 21

·         Non binding voluntarily implemented action plan

·         Contains 300 pages

·         Recommend for UN Convention on combat Desertification (UNCCD) came in force in 1996

(3) Forest principles

NOTE: 1, 2, 3 are not binding

Under this summit important legally binding agreements were opened for signatures

4. UNFCCC

5. CBD

6. UNCCD UN Convention on combat Desertification

Note: 4, 5, 6 are binding

🔸RioDizenario Declaration

🔸Agenda 21  { 21st Century }

·         It highlights the strategy to create innovative Strategies and platform for nation wide administration. So that it can implement the Rio Declaration Mission.

·         It contains 40 Chapters emphasising on topics like challenges faced by poor people, health hazards, maintaining farming, deforestation, desertification, degradation of land, hazardous waste, air and water pollution, release of toxic chemicals and impact on biological diversity etc....

🔸Forest Principle

·         It deals with management, conservation, sustainable development of all kinds of forest both natural and human made

·         It motivates the government to promote participation of communities (Adivasi, Tribes) in development and implementation and planning of national forest policies where environmental protection, social and financial development relating to forest should be incorporated.

💠UNFCCC

·         -UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

·         -Brought in 1992 at Earth Summit Rio

·         -Came in force in 1994

·         -197 Parties

·         To develop a frame work and try to reduce green house gases to maintain global atmospheric temperature

·         -CBD & UNCCD are the sister conventions of UNFCCC

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🔸Classification of UNFCCC countries

3 group of Countries

1. Annex -1

-Industrialised countries and European Countries

-Countries they agreed to decrease their release of emissions to aim 5.2% below their 1990 level by 2012

2. Annex 2

Includes developed countries and European Countries which provide monetary resources for the emerging countries

Includes OECD (Organisation of Economics co operation and development ) also there

3. Annex -3

Developing countries

💠UNCCD

·         -United Nation Combat Conversion  on Desertification

·         -Formed on the recommendations of Agenda 21

·         -Accepted in 1994

·         -Came in to force in 1996

·         -Aim: A nation wide action program that incorporate extended period of strategies with the help of international cooperation against desertification

·         -The year 2006 was declared as International year of desert and desertification

·         This conversion acknowledge exclusively arid, semi arid and dry sub humid areas which are exclusively known as Dry lands

·         -195 countries

·         -Recent convention is held in 2017 in Ordas, China

🔸Committee on Science and Technology

·         -It was recognised by UNCCD

·         It is constituted of government representative capable in the fields of relevant to combat desertification and mitigating the effects of draught

·         This committee identified the priorities for research and recommend ways for intensify cooperation among the researchers

·         -It is a multidisciplinary and all parties are allowed to participate

Note: UNFCCC, CBD & UNCCD are binding

💠Rio +5

·         In 1997 UN General Assembly held a special meeting to evaluate the status on Agenda -21

·         Focus point :: Agenda to Action

💠Rio +10 (JohensBerg Declaration)

·         It also popular as World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

·         WSSD summit occurred 10 years after 1st earth summit

·         It ended in a major disappoint as no new commitment where meet to tackle any environmental crises by the Government

·         It ended with weak and non binding agreement to promote sustainable development

💠Rio + Summit

·         Held at Riodezenario , Brazil

·         Centre Point of Summit:: Agenda -21

·         It was considered as a revolutionary in the sense that it is essentially created the term Sustainable development and created the global environmental agenda for next 20 years

·         This conference has some partnership declarations with other countries

·         Various issues were initiated under this conferences

·         Requirement of Sustainable Development

·         Removal of Food crises

·         Development of transport systems in developing countries with the help of developed countries in transportation infrastructure like BS -IV and etc..

·         -Development of Green Economy

·         International partnership with developing Countries

💠Sustainable Development Goals

🔸Club of Roam ::

Founded in 1968 at Roam , Italy

A global think tank first proposed sustainable development goals in 1972

It deals verity of international issues like world economic system , climate change and environmental degradation

🔸MDG

Adopted in Millennium Summit of UN in 2000

Under MDG 8 international development goals where decided to achieve by 2015

MDGs was for both developed and developing countries

During that period all UN states at least 30 international organizations are committed to achieve MDG by 2015

🔸SDGs  { Non Binding }

ü  SDGs was implemented on June, 2016 and will be ended on 2030 as it replaced the MDGs

ü  SDGs was further proposed in 2012

ü  -It is officially called as transforming our world the 2030 agenda for development

ü  On July, 2014 UN General Assembly opened a working group to propose sustainable development goals with various issues

ü  The world Government in 2016 adopted a new set of 17 Sustainable goals

ü  SDG are applicable to all UN member nation

ü  For both developing and Developed countries

🔷17 SDGs are

The 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs)

GOAL 1: No Poverty

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

GOAL 4: Quality Education

GOAL 5: Gender Equality

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

GOAL 13: Climate Action

GOAL 14: Life Below Water

GOAL 15: Life on Land

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

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💠Ozone protection based Conventions, Protocol and Summits

1. Vienna

2. Mantrial

3. Kigali

🔸Kigali agreement ( Replace

·         Signed by _______________ Countries

·         With a reason of amending Mantrial protocol in its 28th meeting

·         Held in Kigali, Africa on 15th Oct, 2016

·         This agreement was signed to cut down the manufacture use of HFCs by approximately 80-85% from there respective base lines till 2045

·         HFCs are commonly used in refrigerators and air conditioners

·         It's a legally binded agreement among signatory parties

·         It has been decided to come into effect from 1st Jan, 2019

·         It has divided the signatory parties in to 3 groups

1. Rich and Developed Countries

  

(update needed)

2. Emerging Economies

(update needed)

3. Developing Economies and some of the hottest climatic countries like India, Pakisthan , Iran , …

 (update needed)

Provisions for developing countries are also discussed in this agreement

🔸 Implementation of Kigali in India

1.      Financial Implications

2.      Technology Implications

💠GEF Global Environmental Facility

·         Founded in 1991 with 1 B USD as pilot program brought by World Bank

·         Purpose:: To protect global environment

·         In 1992 @ the Rio earth summit the Global Environmental Facility was restructured and become permanent institution

·         Now 10 GEF agencies that are currently operating for the safety of Global Environment

·         GEF unites 183 Countries in partnership with international institutions, civil society organization and private sectors

·         Today the GEF is the largest public funder to improve the global environment

The GEF provider help to work in 7 main areas

1. biodiversity

2. climate change mitigation and adaptation

3. Chemicals

4. International water bodies

5. Degradation of Land

6.Sustainable management of Forest (REDD +)

7. Depletion of Ozone Layer

💠UNESCO

·         HQ:: Paris

·         195Member nations

·         5 Major programs of UNESCO

1. Education

2. Natural sciences

3. Social /Human science

5. Cultural Activities

Note: It works on  Abolition of poverty , Sustainable development also

UNESCOSs strategies and action also worked earlier to attack MDG

💠MAP Man and Biosphere Program

·         UNESCO launched in 1971

·         Intergovernmental scientific program that aims to establish a scientific foundation for the development of relationship between people and their environment

·         It focuses on internationally recognized sites within the world network of Biosphere reserves

💠 Conservation International (CI)

·         It's an American non profit Environmental Organization

·         HQ. in Arlington, Virginia

·         Founded in 1987 with a goal to protect nature as a source of food and fresh water , health, our society and development and everything dependent on ecosystem and natural biodiversity

·         CI work by connecting nature to science and technology, policies, intergovernmental partnership, communities, stake holders, business and much more to reach their goal of building a healthier environment

·         CI also plays important to al in designation HOTSPOTS

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