GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS

            Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated steam that may spout up to a height of 150 feet from the earth beneath. The phenomena are associated with a thermal or volcanic region in which the water below is being heated beyond boiling-point. The jet of water is usually emitted with an explosion, and is often triggered off by gases seeping out of the heated rocks. Almost all the world's geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, the Rotorua district of North Island, New Zealand and Yellowstone Park of U.S.A. The world's best known geyser is perhaps 'Old Faithful' in Yellowstone National park, Wyoming which erupts at regular intervals- every 63 minutes on the average.

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            Hot springs or thermal springs are more common, and may be found in any part of the earth where water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by the interior forces. The water rises to the surface without any explosion. Such springs contain dissolved minerals which may be of some medical value. Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some of them have been harnessed to heat houses, swimming pools and for other domestic purposes. Hot springs and geysers have become tourist attractions e.g in Japan and Hawaii.

FACTORS AFFECTING SALINITY OF OCEANS AND SEAS

The variations of salinity in the various sea and oceans is affected by the following factors :-

·       The rate of evaporation - The water fringing the High Pressure Belts of the Trade Wing Deserts, between 20 degree and 30 degree N and S, have salinity because of the high rate of evaporation caused by high temperature and low humidity. The temperate oceans have lower salinity due to the lower temperature and a lower rate of evaporation.

·       The amount of fresh water added by precipitation streams and icebergs - Salinity is lower than the average 35% in equatorial waters because of the heavy daily rainfall and high relative humidity. Oceans into which huge rivers like the Amazon, Congo, Ganges, Irrawaddy and Mekong frain, have much of their saltness diluted and have a lower salinity. The Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters have a salinity of less than 32% because of the colder climate with little evaporation and because much fresh water is added from the melting of icebergs, as well as by several large poleward-bound rivers, e.g. Ob, Lena, Yenisey, and Mackenzine.

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·       The degree of water mixing by currents - In wholly or partially enclosed seas such as the Caspian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf, the waters do not mix freely with the ocean water and they are not penetrated by ocean currents. Salinity is high, often over 37%. In areas of inland drainage without links with the oceans, continuous evaporation under an almost cloudless sky causes the accumulation of salts around the shores. In the open oceans where currents freely flow, salinity tends to be near the average 35% or even a little lower. The range of salinity is negligible where there is free mixing of water by surface and sub-surface currents.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEATHER AND CLIMATE

            The term weather should not be confused with climate, though they are very closely related to each other in the study of meteorology and climatology. We don't hear people saying that the climate of the day is warm or cold, but we do talk of warm weather, a cold morning, a sunny afternoon, a rainy day or a chilly night. Any casual remarks about the atmospheric conditions of a certain place at a certain time are about weather. It is never static, and thus cannot be generalized. In the same country, even over a small area, the weather can vary tremendously. It may be sunny in one part of the district, but raining heavily a few miles away. Strong gales may be experienced along the coasts while the interior may be relatively calm. It is important to realise that any place can be subjected to haphazard changes in weather at any time.

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            When we speak of climate we mean the average atmospheric conditions of an area over a considerable time. For climate averages, a minimum period of 35 years is desirable. This involves the systematic observation, recording and processing of the various elements of climate such as rainfall, temperature, humidity, air pressure, winds, clouds and sunshine before any standardization of the climate means or averages can be arrived at. The climate of Malaysia is described as hot, wet, equatorial climate which is a summing up of the average everyday climate of the country throughout the year.

            The degree of variability in the climate or weather of a country also differs. Generally speaking, the climate of temperate latitudes is far more variable than that of the tropics, The climate of the the British Isles is so changeable that many people have commented that ` Britain has no climate, only weather'. Conversely, the climate of Egypt is so static that it makes a good deal of sense when people say that ` Egypt has no weather, only climate'.

 

RIVER REJUVENATION

          The earth's crust is far from stable and it is not surprising that, in the course of a river's development, parts may be uplifted or depressed, giving rise to certain characteristics features associated with rejuvenation, i.e. being young again.

            A negative movement occurs when there is an uplift of land or a fall in sea level. This will steepen the slope so that active down-cutting is renewed. A fall in sea level leaves the flood-plain at an increased altitude above the sea level. The river with its renewed vigour cuts into the former flood-plain, leaving behind terraces on both sides of the river. There is also a break in the graded profile of the river, often marked by a series of rapids. This point where the old and rejuvenated profile meet is called the Knick Point or Rejuvenated Head.

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            If rejuvenation occurs in the upper-course, the river valleys are deepened and steep-sided Gorges are formed. In the middle and lower course vertical corrasion replaces lateral corrasion and the existing meanders are vertically eroded by the rejuvenated stream. A distinct new inner trench is cut in the old valley, and the river develops a deep valley with entrenched or incised meanders. The best developed incised meanders are those of the River Colorado, U.S.A., where the uplift of 7,000 feet in the tertiary period renewed down-cutting to a fantastic depth. In some parts of the Grand canyon, the depth is almost a mile. It is 10 miles wide at the top and 300 miles long. Other examples are the River Moselle in Germany, the River Wear at Durham, England and the Wye Valley, Monmouthshire.

            A positive movement occurs when there is a depression of land or a rise in sea level. This submerge the lands along the coast, `drown' the valleys and weaken the erosive power of the river. The flow is checked and large quantities of sediment will be dropped. The lower course of the river may be partly in the sea and features of deposition are shifted upwards to the middle course. The upper course is little affected when there is a rise in sea level. In many areas where the sea has risen this was probably caused by the release of water locked up in the ice masses during the Quaternary Ice Ages.

INDIAN POLITY BY M. LAXMIKANTH – 6TH EDITION

 

 

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